The Attribution Theory
What is the Attribution Theory?
In this theory, it must be assumed that all people are rational thinkers that use internal and external cues to help explain what is going on around them in their environment and that the goal of all people is the mastery of their environment and control over their own actions. The Attribution Theory explains how people use internal cues (their perception of their environment) and external cues (observations of their environment) to attribute causes to outcomes of different events that occur around them. For example, if a man trips and falls he may attribute the cause of the incident to be a rock in his path that he did not see, him tripping on his shoelaces, or not seeing an uneven spot in pavement. He will look immediately after the fall for external cues in his environment to explain the incident. In a learning setting, a student may attribute failing a test to not being smart enough, the test being too hard, or having “bad luck” with test taking. The first example involves external cues and the second involves internal but it is important to note that in the Attribution Theory attributions do not need to be accurate as they are the perceptions of each person individually.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the Attribution Theory?
Strengths
- Can be applied to individuals of any age, in any environment
- Can give the individual a sense of control in an environment (if personal responsibility is assumed)
- Explains how cultural/societal norms effect perception
- Helps educators understand reasoning for student's perception of attributions
- Feedback can influence how an individual perceives a cause of an event
- Perception of events is different for the individual and the observer
- Biases and social consensus can change perception
How is the Attribution Theory applied in practical settings?
Feedback in the Attribution Theory is extremely valuable. In practical learning environments, educators can use feedback to help their students perform based on their perception of the outcomes of their work. If a student performs poorly, but has the potential to do better by trying harder, educators can stress low effort as an attribution and this will likely cause the student to increase performance.
Feedback can also be given throughout different stages of learning so that students do not assume negative attributions for performance. If feedback is given in the beginning, middle, and final stages of learning, then students will understand how they can increase performance, and this will increase their confidence within the learning environment.
All feedback must be credible, however, for this theory to be applied in classrooms. If some students are told that they lack effort but they actually lack knowledge or skill (and have been trying very hard), they may lose motivation to continue to work hard. If a student who is doing well is told that they are doing well based on effort alone (and they are not working very hard), he/she may not be motivated to work hard later even though more difficult learning material is presented.
Feedback can also be given throughout different stages of learning so that students do not assume negative attributions for performance. If feedback is given in the beginning, middle, and final stages of learning, then students will understand how they can increase performance, and this will increase their confidence within the learning environment.
All feedback must be credible, however, for this theory to be applied in classrooms. If some students are told that they lack effort but they actually lack knowledge or skill (and have been trying very hard), they may lose motivation to continue to work hard. If a student who is doing well is told that they are doing well based on effort alone (and they are not working very hard), he/she may not be motivated to work hard later even though more difficult learning material is presented.
Which researchers are associated with the Attribution Theory?
Bernard Weiner (1935 - )
- Defined three causal dimensions (stability, locus, and control) and placed them in a model to illustrate the attributional model. Stability - whether or not the perception changes. Locus - whether the perception is based on internal or external cues. Control - whether the individual has perceived control of an outcome (controllable or uncontrollable). These three dimensions follow perceived causes and can help educators to understand psychological consequences such as low self-efficacy or strong expectancy of success.
- Provided research on stability vs. locus. This research showed that ability and effort are not both internal factors. This is important because it is better to attribute failure to lack of effort than lack of ability
- Linked emotions to attributions. Emotions are the result of how individuals perceive events. This is helpful for educators to understand low self-esteem, depression, shame, or other emotions they may notice from students who are performing poorly.
Fritz Heider (1896 - 1988)
- Popularized the assumption that humans strive to understand their environment
- Explained we search for internal and external causes for events we encounter
- Connected behavior to internal perception of environmental stimuli
Harold Kelley (1921 - 2003)
- Developed three categories that influence perception in the attribution process: distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency. Distinctiveness - how an individual judges a situation. Consensus - how the individual judges a situation in a social situation. Consistency - how the individual judges a situation over time or after it is experienced repeatedly.
- Offered explanation for perception when sufficient information is not available based on the three categories (multiple sufficient or multiple necessary). This is useful for educators because it helps them understand why some students see themselves or others a successful or unsuccessful. For example, if a student who is doing poorly in a certain subject and is put into a new class where other students are doing well, he/she may believe that the other students are simply smarter, have more prior knowledge, or the teacher is more experienced (multiple sufficient). However, if a student is doing poorly in a subject they are unfamiliar with and see other students doing well, he/she may believe that others in the class are smarter and that their prior knowledge gives them an advantage (multiple necessary).
Which research supports or criticizes the Attribution Theory?
Many researchers criticize the Attribution Theory because it is retrospective. They argue that the theory can be useful in understanding the formation of future goals, the effects on self-efficacy, and the perception of values, but does not directly influence motivation. Researchers place greater importance on effecting motivation than on what has caused it. It is also difficult for researchers to study this theory because an individual's perceptions of an event are challenging to measure.